Evidence for catastrophism is very widespread in the fossil record. The mere fact that most fossils are embedded in deposits laid down by water indicates catastrophic formation. Geologists recognize that, "...Waterborne sediments are so much more widely distributed than all other agents of burial that they include the great majority of all fossils."ⁱ

Some fossils show immaculate preservation of detail and these creatures must have been buried instantly to prevent decay. The state of preservation can thus be an indication of how long the animals were exposed to the elements before they were buried. In a flood scenario, some creatures would have remained uncovered longer than others. In fossil fish, for example, we find perfectly preserved specimens, as well as specimens without heads, with and without scales, and sometimes just the bones or pieces of specimens. During putrefaction, the scales and heads of fish drop off quite rapidly, and so it is clear that some were buried instantly while some floated before burial. 

There are four major types of fossils:

1. Molds and casts, comprising footprints and molds that have been filled in with rock forming material

2. Petrified fossils, or fossils turned to stone by replacement of the tissue with the elements of the surrounding strata

3. Carbonized fossils, such as coal

4. Unchanged fossils such as animals trapped in amber or the preserved parts of animals trapped in tar pits. Seashells and tooth and bone fragments also belong to this group.

Since fossilization requires very specific, complex conditions, the vastness of the fossil record does not support the idea of uniformitarianism. When we consider the giant dinosaur fossil, we ask, "What buried these creatures so quickly?" Dinosaurs are sometimes found in relatively large numbers. They are mostly washed into position, with many of them showing distinct stream orientation. Scientists explain this by stating that these creatures lived in the plains and were periodically overcome by floods. However, these fossil beds often stretch over thousands of square kilometers which would not be consistent with such a scenario.

ⁱ C.O. Dunbar, 1957. Historical Geology, John Wiley and Sons INc. New York.  

Updated January 2009. Adapted from the book The Genesis Conflict by Dr. Walter J. Veith. 

One of the finest modern-day detective stories regarding Catastrophism in the fossil record is the story of the petrified trees found in Yellowstone National Park and other petrified forests of the world.

The general distribution and vertical stratification of the petrified trees in the Yellowstone National Park are interpreted to indicate a series of up to 40 successive forests whose combined age was estimated as being well in excess of time-restraints imposed by a flood model. It was believed that each forest was destroyed by volcanic activity, to be replaced in the course of time by a new forest. It was argued that this evidence could not support a young age for the earth. Dr. Harold Coffin carried out a detailed investigation of these petrified forests and discovered that they strongly support the catastrophic model.ⁱ 

As many of the trees stand upright in an apparent position of growth, it was accepted that they were the remains of an actual forest. However, the strata are uniformly flat and unlike any modern forest which, if covered by volcanic ash, would show trees growing on slopes and other uneven topography. Closer examination reveals that the petrified trees have no bark with side branches and root stocks ripped off. This is inconsistent with trees being covered with ash while in a position of growth.

There are not only upright trees in these strata, but many horizontal trees as well. In places, the vertical separation is actually very small—the new layer lying just above the stumps of the older layer. Close examination of the strata reveals typical evidence of turbidite action and sorting of layers, which tend to show reverse grading with the coarser material on top. This is consistent with material which has been deposited by water-induced slides and slumps, and does not support deposition of dry volcanic ash. The organic layers, which previously were considered to represent the compacted forest floors, are water sorted, which belies a mere forest situation. Analyses of tree orientation show that both horizontal and vertical trees are orientated in distinct directions. By comparison, the orientation of fallen trees in standing forests in Oregon, deciduous forests in Michigan, and redwood forests in California show a lack of orientation.

A solution to these anomalies came in 1980, when Mount St. Helens erupted. The March 30 eruption melted the glacial ice, precipitating a flood on the south side of the mountain. Along with cold volcanic ash, the rushing water carried a large number of trees down the side of the mountain. These trees of varying sizes were stripped of their side branches, bark, and roots. The logs were buried in the volcanic ash with a predominant stream orientation. This is similar to the orientation of the petrified trees on the slopes of Mount Horniday.

On May 18, Mount St. Helens erupted again, with an accompanying earthquake. Tremendous pressure within the mountain was released after a rockslide, and the top 400 metres of the mountain were blown off in a catastrophic explosion. A force equivalent to 500 Hiroshima atomic bombs was unleashed. The destruction of the forest was total, with the trees literally blasted out of the ground. Debris falling in the lakes surrounding the mountain caused tidal waves which washed uprooted trees into newly formed and existing lakes. In Spirit Lake a study found that the logs that had root stumps rapidly righted themselves, assuming a vertical position. A recent sonar scan of the bottom of the lake revealed 19,500 upright trees on the bottom of the lake. ⁱⁱ If we apply this scenario to the situation prevailing in Yellowstone National Park, we can readily account for the existing situation on the basis of the catastrophic model.

More than one eruptive cycle would cause numerous turbidity currents and account for the numerous layers superpositioned over each other. Moreover, studies on the chemical composition of the volcanic deposits show that they were from eruptive events occurring simultaneously over a short period of time. This means that the relationship between chemical components in volcanic ejecta is constant only for single eruptive cycles. Studies on lava flows in Hawaii show that eruptive events separated by more than three months can be distinguished on the basis of the magma composition. The time implications for the formation of the petrified forests are thus consistent with the short chronology. Further evidence for catastrophism can be found in fossils that are embedded in more than one geological layer simultaneously—a situation which is impossible if uniformitarian principles are applied.

How long would it take wood to petrify? It has always been believed by scientists that petrification must take place over millions of years. However, these processes can take place rapidly. Instant petrification has been achieved artificially and under natural circumstances. By impregnating wood with solutions high in minerals such as silicon and aluminum, instant petrification has been achieved and even patented. ⁱⁱⁱ  Given the right circumstances, it would not take long for petrification to take place.  Floodwaters together witih volcanic ash would provide the perfect mineral soup for this process.

ⁱⁱ Harold G. Coffin, 1983. "Erect floating stumps in Spirit Lake, Washington." Geology. 11:298-299. 

ⁱⁱⁱ P. McCafferty, 1992. "Instant petrified wood?" Popular Science. October 1992, pp. 56-57. For examples of rapid petrification see also, R. Piggot, 1970. The Australian Lapidary Magazine, January 1970, p. 9. 

 Effects of the Floodwaters

A catastrophe of the awesome magnitude proposed by the Biblical flood model would have totally restructured the post-flood world. According to Scripture, the whole world was submerged under water, and the restructuring of the earth to produce the present topography must therefore be a post-flood phenomenon.

Evidence for total submersion of the continents is widespread on earth. Water deposition is a feature of the geological column, but one layer in particular, the Cretaceous layer, points to a transition between the pre- and post-catastrophic events postulated in this model.

The Cretaceous layer comprises chalk deposits consisting largely of calcium carbonate derived from vast deposits of coccolith (algal) shells and other microorganisms with calcium carbonate skeletons. In view of its universal distribution, the Cretaceous layer is evidence of a worldwide shallow sea covering the continents. The calcium carbonate skeletons of certain algae and Foraminifera would only settle out in large quantities if the seas were shallow and conditions favoured algal blooms. Such disturbed ecological conditions would have prevailed in the immediate post-flood era.

The Cretaceous layer varies in thickness, a condition which could have been brought about by currents or by differences in the time that the various areas were submerged under water. In the area of the white cliffs of Dover, the deposits are substantial, possibly indicating that these areas were submerged for a long period. This type of deposition does not occur today, as the calcium carbonate skeletons would dissolve in the deep oceanic waters presently existing. Although no present-day scenario can parallel the Flood model, there are, however, some events occurring today that can throw light on what might have happened in the past. The present disturbed ecology has resulted in some extraordinary algal blooms in waters rich in inorganic salts, derived from agricultural endeavours or other chemical industries. One such area is the Mediterranean, where masses of effluent and chemicals provide environments conducive to massive algal blooms.

The post-flood waters would have been rich in minerals and decaying organic materials, and in such circumstances, the algal blooms which produced the chalk layers could have been deposited in a very short time. Continental uplift would then have resulted in the drainage of water, recycling of sedimentary deposits and subsequent burial of the chalk layer, plant debris, and decayed animal remains.

Further evidence supporting this model can be found in the tertiary deposits which are packed with fossil graveyards and pieces of broken mammalian bones, a condition which is difficult to explain using the standard evolutionary paradigm, but is to be expected in the case of catastrophism. Moreover, stream-orientation of fossils is evident in the ertiary which further points towards catastrophism.

A catastrophe of this magnitude must surely have left its mark on the stratigraphic record. Indeed, the later Cretaceous is associated with huge-scale extinction of numerous species including the dinosaurs. An analysis of the genera that survived this great extinction at the end of the Cretaceous period shows that besides the complete extinction of the dinosaurs, more than 50% of marine organisms also died in the destruction. In fact, the post cretaceous world is a shadow of what it was prior to this time period. The ammonites and belemnites suffered complete destruction, and of all the swimming reptiles only three survived. Only 30% of all swimming marine organisms survived, whereas the survival rate of the freshwater organisms (97% survival) was much better.  

Marine organisms are adapted to stable conditions and a large-scale upheaval of the marine environment can be expected to lead to large-scale destruction. Numerous fossil beds of redistributed corals and molluscs account for massive destruction of the once-stable marine environment. It is therefore not surprising that only about half of the bottom-dwelling marine organisms survived this event.

No wonder scientists have debated the reasons for this massive extinction with such vigor. Among the hypotheses are intense volcanic activity, epidemics of disease, large scale greenhouse effect with rise in CO2 levels leading to death of dinosaur embryos, change in plant composition, change in ocean salinity, high ultraviolet radiation, dust clouds caused by collisions with comets or asteroids, and ionizing radiation from supernova explosions. Most of these theories concentrate on the dinosaurs, but fail to explain the large scale destruction of all the other life forms. Surprisingly, a worldwide destruction by water comprising large scale upheaval of the ocean floor and submergence of the continents is totally absent from all the scientific conjectures regarding this era of extinction, although all the evidence points precisely to such an event. The chalk bed deposits of the cretaceous period (Creta is the Latin for chalk) are proof that everything was underwater.

Updated January 2009. Adapted from the book The Genesis Conflict by Dr. Walter J. Veith.

  Reasons for Extinction

If we were to seek a reason as to why so many of the great creatures that once roamed the earth are now extinct, we might conjecture that the post-catastrophic world is not conducive to their survival. Firstly, there is evidence for a massive increase in the salinity of the oceans. As a comparative physiologist, I have always been fascinated by the fact that marine fish (both the cartilaginous and bony fishes) are anatomically and physiologically adapted to a fresh water environment. Their internal salt concentration is approximately one third of that of seawater and their kidneys are adapted for the elimination of water although this function is not required in seawater. In fact, their low salt concentration causes them to lose water by osmosis so that they cannot afford to lose water via the kidneys. The cartilaginous fishes (sharks and rays) solve this problem by retaining urea (a toxin) to raise their osmolarity to a level higher than seawater so that they can gain water by osmosis, whereas bony fishes desalinate the seawater with salt pump in their gills. Obviously these organisms were adapted to much lower salinities in the past and only survive because of their ability to osmoregulate under these circumstances. The retention of toxins by a cartilaginous fish is an indication of an emergency solution to which they eventually adjusted. Only organisms that could either conform to the new conditions or regulate their salt content survived. The more sensitive are now extinct.

How could marine and fresh water organisms survive if the waters of the earth were all dumped together during a global flood? The separation between fresh and salt water would only have been re-established once the continents rose above the water level. Surprisingly, however, large bodies of fresh and saline waters, or even large bodies of fresh water from different sources can coexist side by side without much mingling along the contact zones.  This is seen in the great Amazon River, where two bodies of water run side by side for kilometers on end with limited mingling at the contact zone. During the flood, organisms adapted only to fresh water would have been able to survive in large bodies of fresh water that remained relatively distinct. Moreover, the marine life is enhanced where great bodies of fresh water come into contact with the ocean, and many species can only spawn in fresh or brackish water, thus indicating that these were the conditions to which they were earlier accustomed.

One would expect large-scale destruction of aquatic life in areas where the water composition was rapidly and radically changed due to hypersalination from underground aqueducts and through catastrophic mingling of the water masses, and this is exactly what we do find. The fact that so many marine organisms use rivers and estuaries as their spawning grounds indicate that the best survival salinities for these creatures must exist under these low saline conditions and that is why they will migrate long distances to spawn in such areas. 

In terms of coping with the thermal environment, only two categories of land organisms exist today. Terrestrial animals are either endothermic or ectothermic. Endothermic animals (largely mammals and birds) control their body temperatures by increasing their metabolic rates where environmental temperatures drop. Ectothermic animals control their body temperatures by selectively utilizing external sources such as solar radiation. In the absence of solar radiation, the body temperatures of these animals is the same as that of their environment. We also speak of these categories as warm-blooded and cold-blooded animals.

In a world with climatic extremes, all animals would have to belong to one of these two categories to survive. There is evidence that the great reptiles of the past were probably neither endotherms nor ectotherms, but somewhere in between. The same probably holds true for many of the now extinct giant amphibians and mammal-like reptiles. Studies of bone-to-marrow ratios show that the dinosaurs and other creatures were in this intermediary condition and would thus require stable environmental conditions. The plant life of the lower stratigraphic record shows that the earth probably had a relatively warm climate prior to the catastrophe, but the post-catastrophic climate was not suitable for the survival of the palaeoforms. Moreover, the large scale reduction in vegetation associated with the destruction means that many food sources were no longer available and precludes survival of these animals.

The paleontological record shows that far greater varieties of plants and animals existed in the past than are living today. It is also possible that only non-specialist feeders could have survived destruction of a preferred food source, so that many of the great creatures of the past are no longer with us because the planet does no longer provide their niche food. 

Updated January 2009. Adapted from the book The Genesis Conflict by Dr. Walter J. Veith.

The Post-Flood World

The post-flood world must have been very wet, and it is therefore not surprising to find numerous algal deposits with ferns, reeds, reed fish, and dragonfly nests in these deposits. Furthermore, very wet and hazardous conditions are implied by the numerous inland basins and relics of giant lakes. Today's Great Salt Lake in Utah, USA, is about 1/16 of its original size, and only fractionally as deep as it was originally. In fact, it is estimated that the lake must have been some 230 meters deep at one stage. Collapsed limestone caves from this time period also contain fossils of bats which date from the post-flood era. Interestingly, these creatures are identical to present-day forms.

After the Flood, recolonization would have begun. There is evidence of ecological succession in the fossil record of this time. Also, we can deduce that the conditions were considerably warmer than those of today, by the numerous temperate-adapted fossil plants and animals found in regions that today are climatically unsuitable for their existence.

Recolonization of the new earth would have had to be consistent with current concepts of ecological succession. There is evidence of succession in the youngest geological layers. Even distribution patterns of animals suggest colonization patterns consistent with a Biblical perspective. For example, genetic studies have shown that species colonization routes in Africa occurred in a north-south direction, and in Asia and into the Americas from a west-east direction.

Once recolonization had largely been completed, ecological barriers caused by desertification, mountain uplift, or climatic changes could have separated populations. An example could be the African and Indian elephant populations, which are probably relics of a larger population with its origin midway between the two—a scenario to be expected if the story of Noah’s ark has any credence. In view of humankind's great generation length, humans would have been the last organism to spread across the new world. The evidence for the evolution of humans is extremely scant, and as more information becomes available, more and more intermediary forms are removed from the family tree. 

Interestingly, there has been an ongoing debate about the origin of humans. Did we originate in Africa or Asia? Protagonists of the two viewpoints have been at loggerheads since the first fossils of so-called human ancestors were discovered on the two continents. In recent times, the theory that humans evolved in Africa held sway, but recent evidence again supported the view that humans evolved in Asia. The compromise viewpoint that man appeared almost simultaneously in both regions is even more surprising. Again, it can be argued that the data is consistent with a distribution from an area midway between the two disputed regions, making the story of Noah's ark even more plausible.

Subsequent to reoccupation of the post-catastrophic world, the earth experienced a further cycle of catastrophism. Evidence for this can be seen in the vast volcanic deposits present in the youngest layers of the geological column. Volcanism of this scale was probably unleashed when the super-continent Pangaea split up to form the present-day continents. It is estimated that 50,000 volcanoes (the mid-Atlantic Ridge and the Pacific ring of fire) were active at this time. The volcanoes spewed vast amounts of volcanic ash into the air, thus blocking some of the sun's heat and causing a rapid drop in temperature. Even relatively minor present-day volcanoes influence global weather patterns after eruption. The combination of warm oceans and sudden drop in radiant energy is ideal for the formation of glaciers, as it can provide the necessary sustainable precipitation to allow glacial advance. This would have induced the ice age.

Studies at the Athabasca glacier and glacial bed F26 show that complete glaciation and deglaciation need not have taken more than 600 years. Moreover, evidence for more than one ice age is scant. The glaciers would have separated populations such as the woolly mammoth into a northern and southern population, but conditions must still have been relatively warm in coastal areas, as evidenced by coexistence of animals adapted to different climatic conditions (disharmonious species distribution). An example would be hippopotami and reindeer coexisting in England at that time, as evidenced from the fossil record.

The mammals of the Cenozoic layers are often depicted as bizarre and very different to what exists today. Common illustrations are those of the sabre-toothed tiger, giant land sloths, and the woolly mammoth. A feature of these animals is their size and diversity. Of all the sabre-toothed tigers removed from the tar pits at Rancho La Brea, the long-toothed variety represents an extreme of the range. Obviously, in a post-catastrophic world with low population densities, the potential for variation would have been great until increase in population density increased the selective pressures and weeded out the extremes of the range. The supposition that these large mammals existed very long ago and must have represented ancient ancestral forms of modern mammals is not consistent with the facts.

In Siberia, woolly mammoths are found in the ice in such a state of preservation that the flesh is intact. They must have been buried and frozen instantly because such large animals have large heat stores and would have rotted. 

In South America pelts have been found of giant sloths indicating a very recent existence. Today we know that reduction in size need not take millions of years, but can be achieved rapidly by increases in competition or changes in climate. Animals on islands frequently undergo large scale reduction in size within the space of a few generations. Rapid changes of this nature require either human mutations or extraordinary genetic variability. 

Updated January 2009. Adapted from the book The Genesis Conflict by Dr. Walter J. Veith.